Pros and cons Essay

Reality shows is a genre of television show that screens unscripted dramatic or funny situations, reenacting true stories. These shows are usually acted out by normal people instead of professional actors. Hence, this essay will explain the pros and cons of reality shows and why they are so popular. Firstly, reality shows are really fascinating. By watching how the actors speak and behave in unexpected situations, the audience would be able to reiterate them and get out of awkward situations. For instance, watching a reality show that screens a typical life of a lazy student. When a student is unable to hand in his assignment, he can say that he was suffering from a bad headache and promise to hand in the next morning. Secondly, reality shows displays freedom and free speech. As reality shows basically reflects our actions in our daily lives. This will help the viewers to gain the confidence in voicing out their opinions. In other words, democracy can be seen in this situation. Whereby, the people have an equal opportunity to express their opinion on the laws and the actions of their country. Thus, reality shows are popular as it helps to bring out the voices of the people. However, there are also cons to reality shows. From the young to adults and from schools to workplaces, people are discussing about the reality shows they have watched. The reality shows have become a common topic for the people that seperates the different topic for different age range. From this, disadvantages can be observed because this causes a line to be drawn between the young and the adult. Parents and children will not be able to communicate properly and conflicts may rise. Children will think that their parents do not understand them and thus growing apart from each other, affecting their relationship. Lastly, reality shows normally target the adolescence. As part of the media strategy, the reality shows timings are set at night and will affect the student’s studies greatly. Instead of studying at home, the students will watch the television programmes. As a result, not only affecting their study grades but also affect their future career prospects. In conclusion, reality shows are popular as it helps the audience to escape awkward situations by reiterating the actors words and also help to build up confidence in individuals. Though there are bad effects of reality shows, for example, students not studying and instead watching the programmes. This shows why reality shows are so popular. Lol okay sorry Jinbo. I think this essay very crappy x_x you’d probably have vomited like 2 or 3 buckets of blood by the time you reach the end of the composition. My bad 😠¡

History of TV Broadcasting Essay

1950s During the 1950s, the University of Santo Tomas and Feati University were experimenting with television. UST demonstrated its home-made receiver, while Feati opened an experimental television station two years later. On October 23, 1953, the Alto Broadcasting System (ABS), the forerunner of ABS-CBN, made its first telecast as DZAQ-TV Channel 3. The ABS offices were then located along Roxas Blvd. ABS was owned by Antonio Quirino, brother of former president Elpidio Quirino. Consequently, the first telecast was that of a party at the owner’s residence, earning Elpidio Quirino the honor of being the first Filipino to appear on television. The station operated on a four-hours-a-day schedule (6-10PM), covering only a 50-mile radius. ABS was later sold to the Lopez family, who later transformed it into ABS-CBN By 1957, the Chronicle Broadcasting Network (CBN), owned by the Lopez family, operated two TV stations–DZAQ Channel 3 and DZXL-TV Channel 9. 1960s By 1960, a third station was in operation, DZBB-TV Channel 7, or, the Republic Broadcasting System. It was owned by Bob Stewart, a long-time American resident in the Philippines who also started with radio in 1950. RBS started with only 25 employees, a surplus transmitter, and two old cameras. During this time, the most popular horror series on Philippine television was Gabi ng Lagim. In 1961, the National Science Development Board was established. It was behind the earliest initiative to use local TV for education, â€Å"Education on TV† and â€Å"Physics in the Atomic Age.† In 1963, RBS TV Channel-7 Cebu was inaugurated The Metropolitan Educational Association (META), in cooperation with the Ateneo Center for Television Closed Circuit Project, produced television series in physics, Filipino, and the social sciences which were broadcast in selected TV stations and received by participating secondary schools. The META team was headed by Leo Larkin, S.J., with Josefina Patron, Florangel Rosario, Lupita Concio and Maria Paz Diaz as members. The project lasted from 1964 to 1974. By 1966, the number of privately owned TV channels was 18; ABS-CBN was the biggest network by the time Martial Law was declared. By 1968, the daily television content consisted mostly of canned programs; only 10% of programs was locally produced. The same year, ABS-CBN provided Filipinos with a live satellite feed of the Mexico Olympics. Filipino audiences also saw the Apollo 11 landing live in 1969. 1970s During Martial Law, Ferdinand Marcos ordered the closure of all but three television stations: channels 9 and 13 were eventually controlled by then Ambassador Roberto Benedicto, and Bob Stewart’s Channel 7 was later allowed to operate with limited three-month permits. ABS-CBN was seized from the Lopez family, and Eugenio Lopez Jr., then president of the network, was imprisoned. In 1973, the Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa Pilipinas (KBP) was organized to provide a mechanism for self-regulation in the broadcast industry. By the latter part of 1973, Channel 7 was heavily in debt and was forced to sell 70% of the business to a group of investors, who changed the name from RBS to Greater Manila Area (GMA) Radio Television Arts. Stewart was forced to cede majority control to Gilberto Duavit, a Malacaà ±ang official, and RBS reopened under new ownership, with a new format as GMA-7. When the smoke cleared, the viewer had channels 2, 9, 13, run by Benedicto; Duavit’s 7; and 4, which belonged to the Ministry of Information. When DZXL-TV Channel 9 of CBN was sold to Roberto Benedicto, he changed the name from CBN to KBS, Kanlaon Broadcasting System. So when a fire destroyed the KBS television studios in Pasay, the people of Benedicto took over the ABS-CBN studios on Bohol Avenue, Quezon City. His employees moved in, and by August 1973, KBS was broadcasting on all ABS-CBN channels. A year later, Salvador â€Å"Buddy† Tan, general manager of KBS, reopened Channel 2 as the Banahaw Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The two Benedicto stations–KBS Channel 9 and BBC Channel 2—mainly aired government propaganda. 1980s In 1980, Channels 2, 9, and 13 moved to the newly-built Broadcast City in Diliman, Quezon City. In 1980, Gregorio Cendaà ±a was named Minister of Information. GTV Channel 4 became known as the Maharlika Broadcasting System. When Benigno Aquino was assassinated in 1983, it was a small item on television news. GMA Channel 7 gave the historic funeral procession 10 seconds of airtime. In 1984, Imee Marcos, daughter of Ferdinand Marcos, attempted to take over GMA Channel 7, just as she did with the Benedictos. However, she was foiled by GMA executives Menardo Jimenez and Felipe Gozon. On February 24, 1986, MBS Channel 4 went off the air during a live news conference in Malacaà ±ang and during an exchange between Marcos and then Chief of Staff General Fabian Ver. The network was eventually taken over by rebel forces and started broadcasting for the Filipino people. On September 14, 1986, ABS-CBN Channel 2 made a comeback and resumed broadcasting after 14 years. On Novermber 8, 1988, GMA inaugurated the â€Å"Tower of Power,† its 777-feet, 100kW transmitter, the country’s tallest man-made structure. In 1988, PTV Channel 4, then MBS, was launched as â€Å"The People’s Station.† 1990s In the 1990s ABS-CBN launched the Sarimanok Home Page, the station’s Web presence, making it the first Philippine network on the Internet. On February 21, 1992, ABC Channel 5 reopened with a new multi-million-peso studio complex in Novaliches. By 1996, 89% of Filipinos and 57% of Philippine households watched television 6-7 days a week. In 1997, the Children’s Television Act (RA8370), providing for the creation of a National Council for Children’s Media Education, was passed. By 1997, 57% of Filipino households had at least one television. 100% of those in class AB had televisions, as opposed to only 4% in class E. In 1997, the Mabuhay Philippines Satellite Corporation successfully launched Agila II, the country’s first satellite. By 1998, there were 137 television stations nationwide.

An Outline of Global Climate Change on Earth

An Outline of Global Climate Change on Earth There is no doubt that the accumulating evidence is suggesting that the Earth’s climate is continually changing in direct result because of human activity. The most important of which causes the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from fossil fuels. A report from the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated the Earth’s average land and sea surface temperature has increased by 0.6  ± 0.2 degrees Celsius since the middle of the 19th century (â€Å"Climate Change 2014†). The largest parts of change have occurred after 1976. The temperature is not the only thing to change on Earth. The models of precipitation have also changed. The drier regions of Earth are becoming drier, meanwhile other areas are becoming wetter. In the regions where precipitation has surged there has been an unequal boost in the prevalence of the heaviest precipitation occurrences. Furthermore, the IPCC has concluded that if no specif ic actions are taken to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth’s temperatures will likely rise between 1.4 and 5.8 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã… ¾ C from 1990 to 2100 (â€Å"Findings of the IPCC†). These forecasts wind speed and precipitation are not as consistent, but they also suggest significant changes. In general, humans are very accustomed to changing climatic conditions that vary on a daily, seasonal, or annual timescale. Increasing evidence suggests that in addition to this natural climate change, average climatic conditions measured over a period of thirty years or longer are also changing a lot more than the natural variations documented in the time periods of decades or centuries. As time is going on the understanding of these causes are becoming more and more understood. Climatologists have compared climate model simulations of the effects of greenhouse gas emissions to that of the observed climate changes of the past. They have also evaluated the possible natural infl uences to include solar and volcanic activity. Climatologists have concluded that there is new and strong evidence that the majority of the global warming observed over the last fifty years is most likely to be attributable to human activities. Global warming has been documented and observed in all continents with the largest temperature changes happening at the middle and high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. The miniscule amount of climatic change that has already occurred so far has had unmistakable effects on a large variety of natural ecosystems. Over the period 1948 to 2013, the average annual temperature in Canada has warmed by 1.6  °C (relative to the 1961-1990 average), a higher rate of warming than in most other regions of the world (â€Å"Impacts of Climate Change†). There are climate model simulations that have been used to estimate the effects of the Earth’s past, present, and future greenhouse gas emissions on climate changes. These models are based on the data of the heat confining properties of gases released into the atmosphere from man-made and natural sources. Also the measured climatic effects of other natural phenomena is used. The models used by the IPCC have been certified by testing their ability to explain climate changes that already happened in the Earth’s past. Generally, the models can give decent estimates of past patterns only when man-made emissions of non-greenhouse gas air pollutants are included to go with the natural phenomena. This underscores that the models show a good estimate of the climate system, natural fluctuations are important contributors to climatic changes even if they cannot sufficiently explain past trends on their own, and man-made greenhouse gas emissions are a vital contributor to climate patterns and are certainly likely to remain so going forward.

Technical Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Technical Communication - Essay Example The technical communication differs from academic essay writing for other classes. The research focuses on the variance between other academic essays and the technical communication report. The research focuses on the step by step procedures to be implemented by the readers of the technical communication report. The technical communication, unlike the academic essay, always includes the use of technical language. The research includes a study of the similarities between the technical communication and the academic essay. The technical communications report is a step by step explanation of what should be done to accomplish the organization’s expected end product.In terms of characteristics, the technical communication document (accounting technology communications report) found qualifies as a technical communication. According to Michael Albers (39), the document teaches the procedural steps, unlike the academic essays, to prepare the company’s balance sheet and income s tatement. First, the document explains which accounting account title should be debited or credited for every business transaction that occurs in one day. Second, the document dictates that there should have equal total amounts for both the debit entry total and the credit entry total for the journal entry of each business transaction. Next, the document explains each of the intricate steps in transferring the journal entries to the ledger books. Next, the document explains that the balances of each ledger account balances must be transferred to the worksheet.

Personnel Resourcing & Development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Personnel Resourcing & Development - Assignment Example This would help the company take into account the various aspects of the external environment that can impact the organization (Kay, 2010, p.23). In any organization human resources are the most valuable assets for any organization and the success of an organization is heavily dependent upon the management of these vital resources of the organization. The key components of Human Recourse Planning include the following: Proper planning of these vital aspects can help any firm take advantage of the opportunities and generate competitive advantage. In case of Advanced Technical Resourcing the proprieties would be to bring in a change management that would involve a change in all of the above elements so as to make it a preferred organization for prospective employees. Resourcing is one of the most crucial steps in the human resource management of an organization. Resourcing includes employee hiring as well as fitting an employee into the overall organization by ensuring a job fit that involves a matching of a person’s abilities with the requirements of an organization. In case of Advanced Technical Resourcing discussed in the case it is important to have specialised persons as otherwise it would result in employee dissatisfaction that could impact the overall productivity of the organization. Finding a good job matching is very critical to the success of the organization (Taylor, 2005, p.5-6). In order to induce motivation employees must be motivated about their jobs so that they view their tasks as responsibilities and not just activities. In order to do this it is necessary for business organizations to ensure career development as well as a reward mechanism to rightfully reward the deserving employees. In case of Advanced Technical Resourcing regard there should be a fair appraisal of the employees strictly based on performance. In the context of the

Critical Analysis of a Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Analysis of a Film - Essay Example ted nuclear warfare against Russia through a fleet of B-52 bombers each carrying 40 megatons of nuclear warheads directed strategically to Russia’s centers of military activity. The plot thickens as Russian Ambassador Alexi de Sadesky informs U.S. President Merkin Muffley that his country has the Doomsday Device that when triggered would produce a set of nuclear explosions that will eventually lead to the annihilation of all living creatures on earth. Even more alarming is the fact that the device, once triggered, cannot be recalled. The intense subject of the film, especially at a time right after the Cold War, was treated in a different light by its director. No one would have probably expected a political about this topic but this was exactly what Kubrick did. The film shows, in all its legitimate comedic value, the political and social stereotypes that would prevail as a matter of human nature and despite surrounding circumstances. The juxtaposition in the film is an important element to consider in its overall theme. The catchphrase â€Å"Peace is our Profession† is a re-appearing visual that comes out a number of times. In the opening scenes, the audience sees Gen. Ripper on the phone with Group Capt. Lionel Mandrake giving the instructions to implement Plan R and that his order is not a drill. We see him serious on the phone and smoking a cigar intently. On his back is a poster with the phrase and an illustration inside a plaque shape with a clenched fist holding thunderbolts and leaves together with clouds on the background. The same words were not seen immediately on Capt. Mandrake’s background. But as soon as Gen. Ripper can be heard signaling Plan R, the camera changes angles and one can see on his side the same phrase but on a different poster. Instead of the clenched fist, the phrase is unassumingly placed on top of a map with different coordinates around it. This is shown to create the contrast between upholding of peace and starting a war. In

Health Promotion as a Part of McDonald's Business Strategy Essay

Health Promotion as a Part of McDonald's Business Strategy - Essay Example McDonald's began in 1940 as a Barbecue restaurant being operated by Maurice and Richard McDonalds (M. Official Restaurant website). The upgrading of the company to Hamburger restaurant was started in 1948 through the change in the production line principles. The chain was subsequently purchased by businessman Ray Kroc in 1955 who oversaw its global expansion. The restaurants are operated by Franchisee, an affiliate or the corporation itself. In 1960, McDonald improved its advertisement momentum that boosted the sales for its products. This led to the introduction of the current world-famous Golden Arches logo which enabled it to sell more that a Billion Hamburgers in 1963. This initiated the consistent profit that the company has registered overtime leading to an increase in its share value. According to the McDonald’s Publication of 2007, the company became a partner in Dow Jones Industrial Average after transforming into a public corporation. The company opened its 1000th re staurant in 1968 with Fred Turner becoming the President. Amid being involved in a number of legal suits and controversies related to brand and workers, the company has maintained a suitable business niche overtime that has ensured its progressive maintenance of competitive advantage in the market. McDonald’s Historical Involvement in Olympic Games. The company has been the main sponsor of the Olympic Games for more than 35 years and applies the Olympic values of excellence, personal efficiency and teamwork. The idea behind sponsorship of the Olympic Games is related to the Company’s goal of reinforcing excellence, unity and achievement among the athletes and spectators from the world over. According to M.OFFICIAL Restaurant Website, McDonald’s association with the Olympic movement commenced in 1968 when the company provided Hamburgers to the US athletes competing in France. The company went ahead to become the main sponsor of Olympic Games held in Montreal in 1 976 which was followed by the provision of funds for the construction of Olympic swimming stadium in Los Angeles (Wally and Hurley 350). In 1996, the Company established itself as the Centennial Olympic Games partner of the Atlanta games (M.OFFICIAL Restaurant Website). This made the company be crowned as the official restaurant for the Olympic Games for the first time. The management went ahead and participated in the Olympic Winter Games in Nagano, Japan, marking their debut as the World Wide partner and sponsor of the Olympic Games. After honoring the Olympic champion crew that had gathered in Athens by feeding and taking care of them in 2004, the company announced its participation in the subsequent years, 2006 to 2012. In collaboration with the Olympic committee, the company launched a global physical fitness awareness campaign that was intended to call for the attention of the public on healthy eating habits (Lang et al. 45). The launching of the upgraded version of the above campaign was carried out in Torino 2006 Olympic Winter Games. The Olympic athletes also contributed in providing information for the unveiling of the grassroots health program for children. The company continued with its commitment towards children welfare through the launch of the McDonald’s Champion Children.  

The ban on smoking in public places Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The ban on smoking in public places - Essay Example Even then researchers had concerns about the hazards of smoking as they pertained to second hand smoke and people who inhaled it(Comfort pp 14). Commonly referred to as passive smoke, those who were around smoke without actually smoking themselves soon proved to have several definitive health risks associated with being near the smoke and inhaling it through passive (second hand methods). â€Å"Medical concerns about the dangers of passive smoking--inhaling other peoples tobacco smoke--can be traced back to the 1920s, and there is also now a widespread consensus that such passive smoking can cause disease. Other peoples tobacco smoke, either from the burning tip of a cigarette or the smoke that is exhaled by the smoker, is classed as a known human carcinogen by the US Environmental Protection Agency(Comfort pp 14). â€Å" For the most part public place for the purpose of legislative ban incorporated any â€Å"enclosed or semi-enclosed area that members of the public have access to which provides a business or a service including workplaces, buildings and public transport(Comfort pp 14). â€Å" â€Å"Direct benefits revolve mainly about respiratory health, and regular exposure to smoke may trigger asthma in infants and young children. The indirect benefits to young peoples health associated with smoke-free policies is seen to relate to the general reinforcement of the messages that non-smoking is now increasingly the norm within the community and would thus help to promote non-smoking lifestyles in future adult generations(Comfort pp 14).†

The Management of Restraint and Seclusion for Aggression in Essay

The Management of Restraint and Seclusion for Aggression in Psychiatric Patients in Inpatient Units - Essay Example Although initially nonviolent, Jane turned aggressive during normal sampling for tests and punched the nurse who was collecting samples for the tests. On becoming excessively aggressive, the patient was secluded and further restraint to minimize harm to her, her loved ones and the facilities’ staffs and other clients. However, these interventions are rather controversial and the family members opposed their use just as health care and legal professionals and the public continue to question their therapeutic capacities. Consequently, their use is questioned and opposed in equal measures. Instead, aggression management strategies such as individualized safety plans, patient-specific and focused restraint management and prevention, staff notification of restraint and seclusion phenomena, official briefing and debriefing about restraint and nursing staff mentoring are encouraged. In applying these interventions, a nurse leaders and managers should work with all other stakeholders, especially other medical and nursing staff and the families or caretakers of the patient. Consultative approach to leadership would have been quite appropriate for dealing with Jane’s situation. Transformational leadership theory, which postulates that great leadership emerges in cases of problems and encourages collaboration and teamwork, could also apply in this situation. In addition, the contingency theory, which expects leaders to different behaviours and contexts or circumstances are and react accordingly is also appropriate for handling Jane’s aggression. This paper proposes strategies likely to help eliminate or reduce the use of restraint and seclusion as the first choice measures whenever a psychiatric patient turns aggressive on self or others. Introduction For many nurses working in psychiatric inpatient units, violence and aggression are common phenomena. Aggression continues to pose serious challenges to psychiatric inpatient unit nurses despite the many modern and universal methods and strategies of restraint (Schacht, 2006). The two most commonly used interventions applied in the treatment and management of violent and disruptive conducts in psychiatric patients are seclusion and intervention (Anderson & West, 2011). Notably, the application and management of these nursing interventions vary from one country and institution to another. The central role played by these interventions have been largely highlighted in quite a number of nursing and health care studies and literatures, with most of the authors citing numerous recommendations for managing and reducing mental patient aggression (Peterson, 2004). In most of the studies and literatures, the effects of seclusion and restraint on mental illness patients and the prevention of seclusion and restraint or the reduction of their use are among the most highlighted aspects of seclusion management (The Joint Commission, 2008). Whereas seclusion refers to retaining and placing a ment ally ill inpatient in a room so that the immediate aggressive clinical situation is contained, restraint entails the use of different techniques that are custom-made to confine a mentally person to specific body motions (Cruzan, 1992). Despite the difference in meaning, both seclusion and restraint are measures generally used with the aim of preventing further injuries to patients, harm to nurses and to reduce violence and agitation (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, 2006). This paper explores the appropriate management and leadership strategies for handling restraint of mentally ill inpatients by nurses. The following case study of an aggressive patient will form the basis of the proposed aggression management strategies outlined in the paper. Sample Case Jane (name changed for confidentiality)

Industrial Revolution and the Emergence of Aviation Essay

Industrial Revolution and the Emergence of Aviation - Essay Example In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers invented the first practical balloon that demonstrated the flight of hot air balloon (â€Å"Early balloon flight in Europe’). 227 years later in 2011, we use supersonic aircrafts that exceed the speed of sound. This rapidity in growth can be greatly attributed to the potential of industrial revolution. During the 18th and 19th century, aviation sector mainly depended upon manpower that included skilled and unskilled labor. As a result, labors were forced to spend long and tedious hours in manufacturing factories. In fact, great skill are required even today in aircraft designing and flying as these processes are highly complex in nature (‘Aircraft design engineer†). However, skilled labors were not adequately available during that time in order to cater the needs of the aviation sector; this situation impeded the growth of aviation sector. The emergence of industrial revolution gave a new life to aviation sector since the manpower was largely replaced with machinery. Therefore, aircraft manufactures could effectively replace their unskilled workers with technically improved machinery which greatly assisted them to minimize production costs to a large extent. The replacement of human labors with machinery also aided the aviation industry to complete more tasks within a short period of time. Since the aviation sector mainly depended on human labors prior to the emergence of industrial revolution, it had production limitations. Hence, the industrial revolution contributed greatly to aviation when this process enabled the aircraft manufactures to undertake mass production. Evidently mass production can offer considerable profit to aviation industry as bulk purchase of raw materials and other large scale operations would assist the aircraft companies to minimize their production costs. Bulk production and thereby increased productivity aided the aviation sector to promote the air travel as a most effective way of transportation; and in turn, aviation sector could realize higher rates of revenues. The industrial revolution also stimulated commerce once it had significantly reduced all production barriers. According to Talloo (2007, pp. 9-10), commerce and industrial growth are closely related concepts according to which one behind is always trying to c atch up with the other. While going through aviation history timeline, it is obvious that aircraft designers initially developed simple structures since they could not even imagine making complex aircraft parts by the application of technology. The emergence of improved technologies that are attributed to industrial revolution inspired aircraft designers to initiate more and more innovations. This inspiration was further encouraged when aircraft manufactures could effectively market the broad scope of aviation. The development of rail, water transportation was another significant milestone in the history of aviation. Canals were dug during the 18th and 19th century with intent to connect the main rivers for the easy transportation of coal and other heavy goods (‘History of industrial revolution’). Some railway lines were also built in several places where digging canals was a difficult task. These transportation systems were very beneficial to the aviation industry as i t assisted the aircraft manufactures to bring heavy weighted raw materials to the production site easily. Subsequently, percentage of farmers in the total population declined as the industrial re

Psychosocial theory Essay Example for Free

Psychosocial theory Essay Erik H. Erikson adapted and expanded Freud’s theory of development to include the entire life span, believing that people continue to develop throughout life. He describes eight stages of development. Erikson envisions life as a sequence of levels of achievement. Each stage signals a task that must be achieved. The resolution of the task can be complete, partial, or unsuccessful. Erikson believes that the greater the task achievement, the healthier the personality of the person; failure to achieve a task influences the person’s ability to achieve the next task. These developmental tasks can be viewed as a series of crises, and successful resolution of these crises is supportive to the persons’ ego. Failure to resolve the crises is damaging to the ego. Erikson’s eight stages reflect both positive and negative aspects of the critical life periods. The resolution of the conflicts at each stage enables the person to function effectively in society. Each phase ha sits developmental task, and the individual must find a balance between, for example, trust versus mistrust or integrity versus despair. When using Erikson’s developmental framework, nurses should be aware of indicators of positive and negative resolution of each stage. It is also important to be aware that the environment is highly influential in development, according to Erikson. One can enhance an individual’s development by being aware of the person’s developmental stage and by helping the person develop coping skills relative to stressors experienced at that level. One can strengthen an individual’s positive resolution of a developmental task by providing the individual with appropriate opportunities and encouragement. For example, a 10- year- old child can be encouraged to be creative, to finish schoolwork, and to learn how to accomplish these tasks within the limitations imposed by health. Erikson emphasizes that people must change and adapt their behavior to maintain control over their lives. In his view, no stage in personality development can be bypassed, but people can become fixated at one stage or regress to a previous stage under anxious or stressful conditions. For example, a middle- aged woman who has never satisfactorily accomplished the task of resolving identity versus role confusion might regress to an earlier stage when stressed by an illness with which she cannot cope. Erikson’s eight stages of development include Infancy, central task is trust versus mistrust; Early Childhood, central task is autonomy versus shame and doubt; Late Childhood, central task is initiative versus guilt; School Age, central task is industry versus inferiority; Adolescence, central task is identity versus role confusion; Young Adulthood, central task is intimacy versus isolation; Adulthood, central task is generativity versus stagnation and Maturity, in which the central task is integrity versus despair. The indicators of positive resolution for each stages are; learning to trust others for Infancy; self control without loss of self –esteem, ability to cooperate and to express oneself for Early Childhood; learning the degree to which assertiveness and purpose influence the environment, beginning ability to evaluate one’s own behavior for Late Childhood; beginning to create, develop, and manipulate, developing sense of competence and perseverance for School age; coherent sense of self, plans to actualize one’s abilities for Adolescence; intimate relationship with another person, commitment to work and relationships for Young Adulthood; creativity, productivity, concern for others for Adulthood and; acceptance of worth and uniqueness of one’s own life, acceptance of death for Maturity or in the last stage of life of being an adult.

Steps to Project Completion

Steps to Project Completion Problem Definition: The current system needs to be analysed to determine why a new system is needed for the current system. The analysist needs to discover what is needed to be added and why it is needed, this needs to be done as the developer will be unable to produce the needed product without this information, or they might develop something that is incompatible with the current system or add features that simply shouldnt be there are not needed. The analyst needs to define specifically what is wrong and what needs to happen, to do this there are several methods: One on One interviews, Mass surveys and simple observation of the current systems. Feasibility Study: Once the analyst is confident that they have discovered the problems and found all they need to know, then they need to determine whether or not it is feasible to actually take action to develop the product or not. Average questions that are asked during this stage are questions about the Cost, the possible Budget, will there be enough Time, does the company have the necessary Skills to develop it, does the company have the necessary Hardware to develop the product, do they have the needed Software to run the product and how much it would cost, will there need to be Training to run the program once made and would it be Technically possible to create. Systems Investigation: Once the management has listened to any alternate solutions that might be provided by the System Analyst and have decided to either commission the new product to be developed, or to make changes to a pre-existing product/system. During this phase, a very detailed investigation will be carried out to understand the current system and the proposed new system. With the current system, the analyst and developers will need to know how staff/ customers interact with it, how other systems interact with the current system, what is good about the current system and what could cause problems with the current system. With the new system, the analyst and developers will need to know what the new system/product needs to be able to do, how it is going to do this, what people want from it and how it should be incorporated into the system. To do this, the analysist would perform Face-to-Face Interviews with potential users of the system to see what they would like, perform obs ervation how users use the current systems to try to create a way to seamlessly integrate the new product into the current system so the users can use it with efficiency. Systems Design:Once the project manager and the client have agreed upon the requirements (Requirements Specifications) is becomes the time to define the project for its last few stages before the project enters development. This phase is called the Design phase, during this phase the project is designed in detail to ensure that the product will meet the users requirements. This involves Project Planning, System Requirements Specifications, the Data Dictionary and the Testing Documentation. Project Planning: This is about handling staff associated with the production of the product: how many are involved, where and when they are needed for the project. It would also include information about what resources they might need: computers, office spaces, soldering kits etc. it would also include the planning tools, which are used in this section such as Gantt Charts, Critical Path Analysis (CPA) and any Project Management Software. System Requirement Specification: This document will contain information such as the capture methods used to gather data for the system, any of the inputted data that goes into the system, any data that is outputted from the system, how the data is processed through the system. In addition, a record of the file structure for the data storage, how the UI (User Interface) is designed, how it interacts with the OS (Operating System) being used and the hardware that is going to be used on the new system. Data Dictionary: This defines Tables, fields, records and relationships, along with the constants, variables and data structures. As well as any validation that is required in the system along with any query structures. Testing Documentation: From the gathered information from the analysts, the developers will know what is expected of the final product; from this, they will be able to develop a Test Plan for the key parts of the product once developed, and more tests can apply later. Requirements Analysis and Specification: In this section, the developers would need to know all of the requirements that is needed in the final product and why. This includes what the final project should be what it should do, how it should do it and a business case stating whether it could be done on a budget with details stating how much it should cost. It also includes whether or not it is recommended to pursue this course of action or if it would be more beneficial to follow another course of action. System Development Testing: During this stage, the main development of the product takes place using the previously acquired information to correctly design the product. Normally, if possible, the project would be separated amongst several people or teams of people to allow for them to each work on parts of the project individually to help speed up the development. Once a functional version of the product is ready, the developers will run the product through a series of tests that have been made in the prior test plan document. By using this Test Plan, the development team can learn what works, what does not and what might need to be done to improve, refine or fix any issues that could be causing problems. System Implementation: This is when the product is implemented into the main system; to do this the developers will have previously designed to work with the main system. This is also when the product is put out for sale and is distributed to the client and other potential buyers or clients. System Maintenance: This continues for the lifetime of the product, any Technical Documentation that has been created previously including anything like the Test Log, Data Dictionary and the Project Planning for technicians to perform maintenance as needed. This will allow technicians to see what components of the product do what and use this to help solve any issues that might arise. Review Evaluation: Once everything is complete the Project manager will review how well the overall development of the product, see where things might have gone wrong or see what was handled better than other parts. From this review they will be able to see how well certain parts of the process and know what needs to be improved.

Fluctuating Prices and Declining Income of Farmers

Fluctuating Prices and Declining Income of Farmers INTRODUCTION Farming is the growing of crops and the rearing of animals. Major agricultural products include; fish, cereals, cattle, vegetables, oilseed, poultry, potatoes, sheep. Farming contributed  £5.6 billion to the UK economy in 2006. In the last 25 years, farming in Britain has transformed a lot. Farming provided employment for quite a number of people, but nowadays, with the help of machinery and equipment, and the problems associated with farming, only a few people remain on the farm. The total labour force employed in agriculture in the UK is 541,000, of whom 190,000 are employees and the remaining 351,000 are self-employed farmers, partners, directors and spouses. Overall, 1.8% of the UKs workforce is directly employed in farming .The UK food chain accounts for almost 8% of the total economy (RuSource, 2008). However, farmers have always faced problems such as Increasing population growth, water logging and salinity, converting the arable land into non-agricultural uses, high cost of production, fluctuating prices, declining income, increased tax etc. But this article will focus mainly on why farmers have been facing fluctuating prices and declining income over the years. PRICE AND AGRICULTURE Price is the amount of money needed to purchase something or the quantity of payment or compensation for something. A price fluctuation is a change in the price market. Agricultural experts and businesspeople have blamed fluctuating commodity prices, difficult capital accesses and poor development of downstream industries for poor performance of the countrys agricultural industry. Some of the causes of price fluctuations in agriculture includes; seasonal change in supply which is adversely affected by natural or climatic factors, lack of finance, use of crude implements, seasonal shortage of demand, etc. The market structure of a farm which is perfect competition also affects the price. The market structure is such that the farmer cannot influence the price. The price is determined purely by the forces of demand and supply. According to PT Perkebunan Nusantara (PTPN) IV executive director Dahlan Harahap,   fluctuating prices influenced the agricultural industrys performances because most of the companies relied on their revenues on exports. Several major commodities which are mostly exported include crude palm oil (CPO) (77 percent exported), rubber (83 percent), cacao (86) and coffee (70). INCOME AND AGRICULTURE Income is the consumption and savings opportunity gained by an entity within a specified time frame, which is generally expressed in monetary terms. However, for households and individuals, income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits, interest payments, rents and other forms of earnings received in a given period of time. For firms, income generally refers to net-profit: what remains of revenue after expenses have been subtracted. Farmers have faced declining income over the years due to high cost of production and low return to investment. According to Dahlan, high bank interest is one of the factors impeding the countrys agricultural industry. Indonesia, he added, sets the highest bank interest rate in Southeast Asia. This however affects farmers income. UK farming incomes are defined at the industry level by a measure known as Total Income from Farming (TIFF) and at the farm level by a measure known as Net Farm Income. Both measures have exhibited long term decline since the 1960s, reaching a low point in 2000 with average Net Farm Income at just  £8700. Governments of many countries have felt it expedient to intervene in agricultural markets, and have resorted to different forms of controls and subsidies. These have often led to the accumulation of vast surpluses, which have sometimes rotted in storage and sometimes been sold abroad at subsidized prices. The theory of demand and supply can be used to understand why farmers face fluctuating price and declining since Price is a reflection of supply and demand. DEMAND AND SUPPLY IN AGRICULTURE The agricultural sector is a very unique sector in economics because it displays characteristics in terms of the demand for and the supply of its goods not seen in any other sector. The principal characteristics of demand are that it is both income and price inelastic and it has high dependency on population and tastes which cause demand to be static in both the short and the long run. On the other hand supply is very volatile in the short run due to extraneous factors because supply is a biological process though in the long run due to technological advances we tend to observe an increasing trend. Also, because agricultural products are perishable and because the production period is long, supply will be inelastic so producers will have to supply in the short run even at very low prices. Another characteristic of supply is its atomistic structure and asset fixity. These basically imply that there will be a large number of insignificant producers and that most agricultural asset will be fixed. These have various implications for prices which are very unstable in the short run and in the long run present a declining trend. Similarly farm incomes tend to be unstable in the short run and converge in the long run though it must be noted that this is also due to extensive government subsidisation of agriculture. DEMAND Demand  refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a good that a consumer is willing and able to buy at a given price over a given period of time. Demand curve is a graph showing the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity of the good demanded over a given time period. Price is measured on the vertical axis; quantity demanded is measured on the horizontal axis The law of demand states that the quantity of a good demanded per period of time will fall as price rises and will rise as price falls, other things being equal (ceteris paribus). Demand on price and income According to Richard and Chrystal (2007); Agricultural production is subject to large variations resulting from factors that are beyond human control. For example, bad weather reduces output below that planned by farmers while exceptionally good weather pushes output above planned levels. Inelastic demand De E Elastic demand D1 Price Inelastic demand P0 Elastic demand Quantity 0 q1 q0 q3 Unplanned changes in output . Figure 3.1 Unplanned fluctuations in output (Richard and Chrystal 2007) Because farm products often have inelastic demands, large price fluctuations causes unplanned changes in production which in turn affects farmers income. Stabilization of agricultural prices: Farmers are allowed to sell their whole crop each year. When production unexpectedly exceeds normal output, the government buys in the market. It allows price to fall, but only by the same proportion that production has increased. When production unexpectedly falls short of normal output, the government enters the market and sells some of its stocks. It allows price to rise, but only by the same proportion that production has fallen below normal. Thus, as farmers encounter unplanned fluctuations in their output, they encounter exactly offsetting fluctuations in prices, so that their revenues are stabilized. In effect, the government has converted the elasticity of demand from being inelastic to being unitary. With a unit elasticity the total revenue of sellers does not change as quantity changes, because given percentage changes in quantity are offset by equal percentage changes of price but in the opposite direction. Figure 3.2 Income stabilization (Richard and Chrystal 2007) Income stabilization is achieved by allowing prices to fluctuate in inverse proportion to output Appropriate government intervention in agricultural markets can reduce price fluctuations and stabilize producers revenues.

Essay example --

The First Silesian War The First Silesian War inaugurated, and is generally seen in the context of, the wider ranging War of the Austrian Succession. It owed its origins to the Pragmatic Sanction of 19 April 1713 whereby the Habsburg emperor Charles VI decreed the imperial succession arrangements as set out in his will, according precedence to his own daughters over the daughters of his (by now deceased) elder brother Joseph I. This proved prescient: in May 1717 the emperor’s own eldest daughter was born and on his death in 1740, she duly succeeded as Archduchess of Austria as well as to the thrones of the Bohemian and Hungarian lands within the Habsburg Monarchy as Queen Maria Theresa. During the emperor’s lifetime the Pragmatic Sanction was generally acknowledged by the Imperial States; however, upon his death it was promptly contested both by the Hohenzollern scion Frederick II, who had just ascended the throne of the King in Prussia, and by the Wittelsbach elector Charles Albert of Bavaria. While Charles launched a claim to the Imperial throne and the Habsburg territories, King Frederick II aimed at the annexation of the Silesia, a Bohemian crown land since 1526. Frederick based his demands on a 1537 inheritance treaty of the Silesian duke Frederick II of Legnica with the Hohenzollern elector Joachim II of Brandenburg, whereby the Silesian duchies of Legnica, WoÅ‚Ã ³w, and Brzeg were to pass to the Electorate of Brandenburg on the extinction of the Silesian Piasts. The Bohemian king Ferdinand of Habsburg, aware of the Hohenzollern ambitions, had immediately rejected the agreement; nevertheless, in 1675 the "Great Elector" Frederick William of Brandenburg raised claim to the principalities, when with the death of Duke George Will... ...ides, and in this war, they supported Prussia against their former allies the Austrians. After battles in 1761–1762 went well for Russian and Austrian forces, in January 1763 Russia had suddenly abandoned Austria after the rise of Peter III who recalled his army from within Berlin and Pomerania upon the death of Queen Elizabeth of Russia Peter was soon assassinated and Catherine the Great succeeded him and could once again bring Russia into an alliance. Peace talks that were already in progress, war had ended in February 1763. worse for Austria, Peter had mediated an agreement between Prussia and Sweden, allowing Frederick II's forces to consolidate his position and bolster Prussia's claims in January and February. All these events were against Austria's interests. Consequently, Prussia was then confirmed with her Silesian possessions in the Treaty of Hubertusburg.

Childhood Obesity Essay -- Obesity in Children

One of the biggest problems we currently face as a society is obesity. People all over the nation question why we are having this problem and who is responsible. Who do we turn to to educate our society so that we may address this problem the correct way? The answer: healthy eating habits and exercising should be taught early in a child's life. An excellent place to build these fitness foundations is where children spend almost a third of their time: at school. Physical education should be available for all kindergarten through twelfth-grade students in order to tackle the problems of obesity. The number of overweight youth has more than doubled in the past thirty years according to an article, 'Is Physical Education Becoming an Oxymoron' written by Vicki Worrel, a Physical Education professor at Wichita State University. In addition, fifteen percent out of nine million children, ages six to nineteen, are overweight according to the article 'The Growing Cost of Obesity.' Obesity is one of our nation's largest and most expensive health problems. Obese children have a higher chance of growing up to become obese adults (Troxler 24). As you can see in the statements above, it?s obvious that obesity is a continuing and growing problem and all starts at an early age. Physical activity should be encouraged at an early age. It would be best to make physical education a required school curriculum. A student taking a physical education class will have many benefits. For example, a child taking a physical education class will learn about proper exercising. It would also be wise if the instructors integrated information about healthy eating habits into the curriculum to further increase a child?s knowledge on good dieting. This will help a child develop physically more in strength and endurance which in turn will build healthy bones, muscles, and muscle development. Furthermore, at the same time a child will maintain a healthy weight from eating a nutritional diet. Having studied some physical education classes from personal experience, the coach was very passionate about being healthy. Before leaving P.E. class everyday, he would review all the major food groups and stress that the students stay away from fried foods and consume more fruit in their di et. There are many benefits to exercise. Physical activity can help increase self-esteem and reduce stress an... ...education to all the children in school. This will, in turn, guide our future generation to follow a hale and hearty exercising and diet programs. In addition, such programs will initiate a smaller percentage of children becoming obese and thus growing up as regular healthy adults. As a society, we should depend on the schools to educate our children on physical education and healthy eating habits. Physical education classes should be available for all grades from kindergarten to twelfth grade in order to face the problems of obesity in our society. Works Cited: Loewy, Michael I. Working with Obese Children in Schools. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. ?The Growing Cost of Obesity: An Article? National Association of Convenience Store Online. 15 May. 2013. < http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/News/Daily_News_Archives/May2013/nd0515034.htm> Troxler, Howard. ?Much Mind Exercise and Too Little Physical Education Cause Flab.? The Times. October 2013. Worrel, Vicki. ?Is Physical Education Becoming an Oxymoron: An Article? University Communications, Wichita State University. 19 Sep. 2013. < http://webs.wichita.edu/dt/newsletter/show/?NID=1768&AID=4006> Childhood Obesity Essay -- Obesity in Children One of the biggest problems we currently face as a society is obesity. People all over the nation question why we are having this problem and who is responsible. Who do we turn to to educate our society so that we may address this problem the correct way? The answer: healthy eating habits and exercising should be taught early in a child's life. An excellent place to build these fitness foundations is where children spend almost a third of their time: at school. Physical education should be available for all kindergarten through twelfth-grade students in order to tackle the problems of obesity. The number of overweight youth has more than doubled in the past thirty years according to an article, 'Is Physical Education Becoming an Oxymoron' written by Vicki Worrel, a Physical Education professor at Wichita State University. In addition, fifteen percent out of nine million children, ages six to nineteen, are overweight according to the article 'The Growing Cost of Obesity.' Obesity is one of our nation's largest and most expensive health problems. Obese children have a higher chance of growing up to become obese adults (Troxler 24). As you can see in the statements above, it?s obvious that obesity is a continuing and growing problem and all starts at an early age. Physical activity should be encouraged at an early age. It would be best to make physical education a required school curriculum. A student taking a physical education class will have many benefits. For example, a child taking a physical education class will learn about proper exercising. It would also be wise if the instructors integrated information about healthy eating habits into the curriculum to further increase a child?s knowledge on good dieting. This will help a child develop physically more in strength and endurance which in turn will build healthy bones, muscles, and muscle development. Furthermore, at the same time a child will maintain a healthy weight from eating a nutritional diet. Having studied some physical education classes from personal experience, the coach was very passionate about being healthy. Before leaving P.E. class everyday, he would review all the major food groups and stress that the students stay away from fried foods and consume more fruit in their di et. There are many benefits to exercise. Physical activity can help increase self-esteem and reduce stress an... ...education to all the children in school. This will, in turn, guide our future generation to follow a hale and hearty exercising and diet programs. In addition, such programs will initiate a smaller percentage of children becoming obese and thus growing up as regular healthy adults. As a society, we should depend on the schools to educate our children on physical education and healthy eating habits. Physical education classes should be available for all grades from kindergarten to twelfth grade in order to face the problems of obesity in our society. Works Cited: Loewy, Michael I. Working with Obese Children in Schools. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 2012. ?The Growing Cost of Obesity: An Article? National Association of Convenience Store Online. 15 May. 2013. < http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/News/Daily_News_Archives/May2013/nd0515034.htm> Troxler, Howard. ?Much Mind Exercise and Too Little Physical Education Cause Flab.? The Times. October 2013. Worrel, Vicki. ?Is Physical Education Becoming an Oxymoron: An Article? University Communications, Wichita State University. 19 Sep. 2013. < http://webs.wichita.edu/dt/newsletter/show/?NID=1768&AID=4006>

Between The Forest And Greed :: essays research papers

Between The Forest and Greed Within the past decade there has been a rising "environmentally conscious" movement. The spectrum of issues in contention by environmentalism has expanded virulently and is reaching its zenith. Public dissatisfaction with the environmental movement is forming, as the movement has taken the fight for the environment too far. Donella Meadows is an environmentalist who has yet to fully think about the issue she is arguing. In her piece "Not Seeing the Forest for the Dollar Bills," she takes an almost infantile approach to the logging industry and the concept of clear cutting. The monetary motivations behind the logging industry is her explanation for clear cutting, trying to portray the logging industry as a cold money making machine. This of course neglects the fact that the reason logging generates capital is because the world needs wood. There are several economic and environmental issues that are considered when loggers enter and area. Haphazard clear cutting of forests, while it maybe what Meadows would like us to think, does not happen. With every industry, every aspect is carefully debated and analyzed for the short and long term outcomes. Any industry that capitalizes on earth's resources figuratively signs a pact with the earth. This pact bonds this industry to the earth and requires that any harvesting of resources is not done so with haste and waste. There is a symbiotic relationship between the two. For the industry to exist there must be a constant supply of the resource. Without a constant supply the industry dies. Now, many people believe that the logging industry's objective is to cut down all the trees that are currently standing. As horrific as this scenario may sound, it is far from the truth. Without trees to cut down there is no industry. The logging industry is not so foolish as to rampage the forests and cut down all the trees. As they cut, they plant. Replacing forests with samplings may look inadequate, but over a long period of time these samplings will become a new forest. The earth as we know it today has been in existence for millions of years. Even if newly planted tress take a century to grow back that is only a pinpoint on the time line. The millions of acres of forested land left untouched currently will not be engulfed by blades and tractors instantly. It will take time to cut down the trees, as it will take time to grow them back. Meadows seems to have a misconception of industries and the service they provide. All industries, whether it be recycling to logging, are trying to

Paper on ICD-9-CM, Essay

The International Classification of Diseases, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM), is used in assigning codes to diagnoses associated with inpatient, outpatient, and physician office utilization in the U.S. Volume 1: The numeric listing of diseases, classified by etiology and anatomical system, as well as a classification of other reasons for encounters and causes of injury. This is called the tabular section of ICD-9-CM. Volume 1 is used by all health care providers and facilities. Volume 2: The alphabetic index used to locate the codes in Volume 1. Volume 2 is used by all health care providers and facilities Volume 3: A procedural classification with a tabular section and an index. This set of procedure codes is used only by hospitals to report services. Category I: Procedures that are consistent with contemporary medical practice and are widely performed. Category II: Supplementary tracking codes that can be used for performance measures. Category III: Temporary codes for emerging technology, services and procedures. It is important to become familiar with each category and how the codes will be used. It is also important to know when codes from another system, such as HCPCS Level II, are required. Category I codes are the five-digit numeric codes included in the main body of CPT. Category I is the section that coders usually identify with when talking about CPT. These codes represent procedures that are consistent with contemporary medical practice and are widely performed. Category I codes are updated annually and are broken down into six sections. 1. Evaluation and Management 2. Anesthesiology 3. Surgery 4. Radiology 5. Pathology and Laboratory 6. Medicine Evaluation and management codes are the most commonly billed codes in medicine. These are the codes for every office visit/encounter a physician has with a patient. V codes are used to describe encounters with circumstances other than disease or injury. V codes are used either as a first listed or contributing code depending on the situation. E codes are supplemental codes that capture the external cause of injury or poisoning, the intent and the place where the event occurred. E codes are intended to provide data for injury research and prevention strategies. E codes are never to be used as a primary diagnosis code. The HCPCS level II is a comprehensive and standardized coding system that describes classifications of like products that are medical in nature by category for the purpose of efficient claims processing. For each HCPCS code, there is a descriptive terminology that identifies a category of like items. These codes are used primarily for billing purposes. Level I, are based on and identical to CPT codes, the codes developed by the American Medical Association. Reference http://www.medicalbillingandcodingu.org/icd-9-cm-coding-overview/ http://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Coding/MedHCPCSGenInfo/index.html?redirect=/MedHCPCSGeninfo/

Help for Various as Level History Essays

version 1. 1 abc General Certificate of Education AS History 1041 Unit 1: HIS1C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 Mark Scheme 2009 examination – June series This mark scheme uses the new numbering system which is being introduced for examinations from June 2010 The specimen assessment materials are provided to give centres a reasonable idea of the general shape and character of the planned question papers and mark schemes in advance of the operational exams. Further copies of this Mark Scheme are available to download from the AQA Website: www. qa. org. uk Copyright  © 2009 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved. COPYRIGHT AQA retains the copyright on all its publications. However, registered centres for AQA are permitted to copy material from this booklet for their own internal use, with the following important exception: AQA cannot give permission to centres to photocopy any material that is acknowledged to a third party even for internal use within the cent re. Set and published by the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance.The Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (AQA) is a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales (company number 3644723) and a registered charity (registered charity number 1073334). Registered address: AQA, Devas Street, Manchester M15 6EX Dr Michael Cresswell Director General History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) Generic Introduction for AS The AS History specification is based on the assessment objectives laid down in QCA’s GCE History subject criteria and published in the AQA specification booklet.These cover the skills, knowledge and understanding which are expected of A Level candidates. Most questions address more than one objective since historical skills, which include knowledge and understanding, are usually deployed together. Consequently, the marking scheme which follows is a ‘levels of response’ scheme and assesses candidates’ his torical skills in the context of their knowledge and understanding of History. The levels of response are a graduated recognition of how candidates have demonstrated their abilities in the Assessment Objectives.Candidates who predominantly address AO1(a) by writing narrative or description will perform at Level 1 or Level 2 depending on its relevance. Candidates who provide more explanation – (AO1(b), supported by the relevant selection of material, AO1(a)) – will perform at high Level 2 or low-mid Level 3 depending on how explicit they are in their response to the question. Candidates who provide explanation with evaluation, judgement and an awareness of historical interpretations will be addressing all 3 AOs (AO1(a); AO1(b): AO2(a) and (b) and will have access to the higher mark ranges.AO2(a) which requires the evaluation of source material is assessed in Unit 2. Differentiation between Levels 3, 4 and 5 is judged according to the extent to which candidates meet this range of assessment objectives. At Level 3 the answers will show more characteristics of the AO1 objectives, although there should be elements of AO2. At Level 4, AO2 criteria, particularly an understanding of how the past has been interpreted, will be more in evidence and this will be even more dominant at Level 5.The demands on written communication, particularly the organisation of ideas and the use of specialist vocabulary also increase through the various levels so that a candidate performing at the highest AS level is already well prepared for the demands of A2. 3 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) CRITERIA FOR MARKING GCE HISTORY: AS EXAMINATION PAPERS General Guidance for Examiners (to accompany Level Descriptors) Deciding on a level and the award of marks within a levelIt is of vital importance that examiners familiarise themselves with the generic mark scheme and apply it consistently, as directed by the Principal Examiner, in order to facil itate comparability across options. The indicative mark scheme for each paper is designed to illustrate some of the material that candidates might refer to (knowledge) and some of the approaches and ideas they might develop (skills). It is not, however, prescriptive and should only be used to exemplify the generic mark scheme. When applying the generic mark scheme, examiners will constantly need to exercise judgement to decide which level fits an answer best.Few essays will display all the characteristics of a level, so deciding the most appropriate will always be the first task. Each level has a range of marks and for an essay which has a strong correlation with the level descriptors the middle mark should be given. However, when an answer has some of the characteristics of the level above or below, or seems stronger or weaker on comparison with many other candidates’ responses to the same question, the mark will need to be adjusted up or down. When deciding on the mark with in a level, the following criteria should be considered in relation to the level descriptors.Candidates should never be doubly penalised. If a candidate with poor communication skills has been placed in Level 2, he or she should not be moved to the bottom of the level on the basis of the poor quality of written communication. On the other hand, a candidate with similarly poor skills, whose work otherwise matched the criteria for Level 4 should be adjusted downwards within the level. Criteria for deciding marks within a level: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The accuracy of factual information The level of detail The depth and precision displayed The quality of links and argumentsThe quality of written communication (grammar, spelling, punctuation and legibility; an appropriate form and style of writing; clear and coherent organisation of ideas, including the use of specialist vocabulary) Appropriate references to historical interpretation and debate The concl usion 4 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) Specimen Mark Scheme for examinations in June 2010 onwards GCE AS History Unit 1: Change and Consolidation HIS1C: The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 Question 1 01 Explain why Luther attacked the sale of indulgences in 1517. (12 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b) Generic Mark SchemeNothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1: Answers will contain either some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support. Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-2 L2: Answers will demonstrate some knowledge and understanding of the demands of the question. They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they will provide some explanations backed by evidence that is limited in range an d/or depth.Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structured. 3-6 L3: Answers will demonstrate good understanding of the demands of the question providing relevant explanations backed by appropriately selected information, although this may not be full or comprehensive. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 7-9 L4: Answers will be well-focused, identifying a range of specific explanations, backed by precise evidence and demonstrating good understanding of the connections and links between events/issues.Answers will, for the most part, be well-written and organised. 10-12 Indicative content Candidates will need to be able to link Luther’s own intellectual development with the wider political and religious context. Luther’s hostility towards indulgences had hardened from about 1513 as he developed his solifidian ideas. In particular, their issue had no scriptural basis. Howev er, the formulation of the 95 Theses was sparked off by the aggressive peddling of indulgences by the Dominican Johannes Tetzel at Juterbog, not far from Wittenberg but outside the jurisdiction of Electoral Saxony.Concern, therefore, for the mortal souls of innocent dupes was thus a catalyst for Luther’s protest. On the other hand, Luther’s initial objections were as much the product of the scale of sale and the style of salesmanship as it was a product of a considered theological analysis. The scale of the operation was a consequence of the indebtedness of both Pope Leo X, on account not only of his extravagant lifestyle but also the spiralling cost of rebuilding St. Peters, and the 5 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards)Archbishop of Mainz, in huge debt to the Fuggers because of the amount he had borrowed to secure the simoniacal acquisition of the archbishopric. Tetzel’s sales pitch had included the claim of plenary remission of si ns as heinous as raping the Virgin Mary. Question 1 02 How far was the success of the Lutheran movement in Germany due to the reformers’ use of the printing press in the years 1517 to 1555? (24 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b), AO2(b) Generic Mark Scheme Nothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1:Answers may either contain some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or they may address only a part of the question. Alternatively, there may be some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support. Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. There will be little, if any, awareness of differing historical interpretations. The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-6 L2: Answers will show some understanding of the focus of the question.They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they may contain some explicit comment with relevant bu t limited support. They will display limited understanding of differing historical interpretations. Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structured. 7-11 L3: Answers will show a developed understanding of the demands of the question. They will provide some assessment, backed by relevant and appropriately selected evidence, but they will lack depth and/or balance.There will be some understanding of varying historical interpretations. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 12-16 L4: Answers will show explicit understanding of the demands of the question. They will develop a balanced argument backed by a good range of appropriately selected evidence and a good understanding of historical interpretations. Answers will, for the most part, show organisation and good skills of written communication. 17-21 L5: Answers will be well-focused and closely argued.The arguments will be supported by pr ecisely selected evidence leading to a relevant conclusion/judgement, incorporating well-developed understanding of historical interpretations and debate. Answers will, for the most part, be carefully organised and fluently written, using appropriate vocabulary. 22-24 Indicative content Printing had a fundamental role in the success of the Lutheran movement: †¢ this can be traced back to November 1517 when Luther’s 95 Theses were translated and printed in numerous editions, suggesting the existence of an avid and informed readership History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) †¢ †¢ †¢ the 1520 pamphlets sold in large numbers and were pivotal in disseminating Luther’s theological ideas and their relationship to the contemporary political context Luther and his colleagues continued to publish widely, his translation of the Bible proved very influential and the Lutheran message was spread visually in huge numbers of woodcuts, whic h meant that the message could be assimilated by the illiterate as well as the literate n contrast, the Catholic Church responded rather slowly at first to the Lutheran challenge; in the short-term, at any rate, its exploitation of the potential offered by the new technology left much to be desired. Other factors: The importance of printing should be placed in the context of a range of other factors, including: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the political impetus created by the support for Luther of many German princes the problems faced by Charles V which prevented his prioritising the destruction of the Lutheran threat before 1546 and also prevented him from achieving a triumph even though he had been militarily successful he appeal of Luther’s ideas the social impact of Luther’s teaching (at least until 1525) the impact of preaching the contribution of other reformers, such as Melanchthon. 7 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 o nwards) Question 2 03 Explain why the Anabaptists were suppressed in Munster in 1535. (12 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b) Generic Mark Scheme Nothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1: Answers will contain either some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support.Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-2 L2: Answers will demonstrate some knowledge and understanding of the demands of the question. They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they will provide some explanations backed by evidence that is limited in range and/or depth. Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structured. 3-6 L3:Answers will demonstrate good understanding of the demands of the question providing relevant explanations backed by appropriately selected information, although this may not be full or comprehensive. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 7-9 L4: Answers will be well-focused, identifying a range of specific explanations, backed by precise evidence and demonstrating good understanding of the connections and links between events/issues. Answers will, for the most part, be well-written and organised. 10-12 Indicative contentCandidates might include some of the following factors: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ all authority, both secular and religious, appeared to be challenged by the rule of the ‘Saints’ in Munster; and this encouraged the traditional authorities to take violent action traditional morality was challenged with the introduction of polygamy and was regarded with particular repugnance by socially conservative rulers, both Lutheran and Catholic property rights were challenged with the introduction of a form of com munism which was a direct challenge to the basis on which traditional rulership was conducted all existing political authority was rejected.This was a threat which could not be ignored by both the Catholic Bishop and the Lutheran Philip of Hesse. The Anabaptists rejected Bibliocentrism and stressed instead direct divine inspiration, which tended conveniently to reinforce the above points. The result was a dramatic and apocalyptic movement which frightened Catholics and Lutherans alike. This even led the Landgrave of Hesse, the political leader of the Lutheran movement, and the Bishop of Munster to set aside their differences in order to join forces to suppress the ‘Saints’. 8 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards)Question 2 04 How far was the success of the Genevan Reformation to 1564 a result of Calvin’s actions against his opponents? (24 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b), AO2(b) Generic Mark Scheme Nothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1: Answers may either contain some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or they may address only a part of the question. Alternatively, there may be some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support. Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. There will be little, if any, awareness of differing historical interpretations.The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-6 L2: Answers will show some understanding of the focus of the question. They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they may contain some explicit comment with relevant but limited support. They will display limited understanding of differing historical interpretations. Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structured. 7-11 L3: Answers will show a developed understanding of the demands of the question.They will provide some assessment, backed by relevant and appropriately selected evidence, but they will lack depth and/or balance. There will be some understanding of varying historical interpretations. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 12-16 L4: Answers will show explicit understanding of the demands of the question. They will develop a balanced argument backed by a good range of appropriately selected evidence and a good understanding of historical interpretations. Answers will, for the most part, show organisation and good skills of written communication. 7-21 L5: Answers will be well-focused and closely argued. The arguments will be supported by precisely selected evidence leading to a relevant conclusion/judgement, incorporating well-developed understanding of historical interpretations and debate. Answers will, for the most part, be carefully organised and fluently written, using appropriate vocabulary. 22-24 Indicative content Calvin, on ce he had recovered from early setbacks, made short work of religious opponents, such as Castellio, Bolsec and Servetus. His triumph over Perrin and the Libertines demonstrated the extent of his political as well as his theological control over Geneva.The discipline thus engendered made Geneva an even more successful centre of reform, becoming in effect the hub of a huge missionary movement. Other factors help to explain the success of reform in Geneva, including: †¢ †¢ the importance of Calvin’s writing and preaching should not be underestimated church organisation was important in holstering reform in Geneva 9 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) †¢ †¢ †¢ Calvin’s authority was bolstered by such institutions as the Consistory and the Grabeau the assistance of the Genevan Council, once it had been purged of Calvin’s opponents, was critical he Genevan Academy became an important institution for the training o f Calvinist clergy, though, as it was only founded in 1559, its impact by 1564 was necessarily limited. Question 3 05 Explain why many new orders developed within the Catholic Church in the early sixteenth century (before 1540). (12 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b) Generic Mark Scheme Nothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1: Answers will contain either some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support.Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-2 L2: Answers will demonstrate some knowledge and understanding of the demands of the question. They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they will provide some explanations backed by evidence that is limited in range and/or depth. Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structu red. 3-6 L3:Answers will demonstrate good understanding of the demands of the question providing relevant explanations backed by appropriately selected information, although this may not be full or comprehensive. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 7-9 L4: Answers will be well-focused, identifying a range of specific explanations, backed by precise evidence and demonstrating good understanding of the connections and links between events/issues. Answers will, for the most part, be well-written and organised. 10-12 Indicative contentThe process of Catholic renewal was exemplified by the creation and activity of new orders within the Church, mostly in central and northern Italy. A number of factors help to explain their emergence: †¢ †¢ †¢ there was clearly a ‘rising spirituality’ particularly amongst a number of committed churchmen such as Gaetano di Thiene there was an increasing perception that traditional monasticism was no longer able to provide the spiritual impetus and evangelising which the Church needed there was a willingness on the part of wealthy patrons to support the orders’ spiritual aims 10 History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) there is clear evidence that the foundation of some orders was a response to the social misery which characterised parts of Italy in the 1520s. Question 3 06 How important was the Papacy in reforming the Catholic Church in the years 1534 to 1564? (24 marks) Target: AO1(a), AO1(b), AO2(b) Generic Mark Scheme Nothing written worthy of credit. 0 L1: Answers may either contain some descriptive material which is only loosely linked to the focus of the question or they may address only a part of the question. Alternatively, there may be some explicit comment with little, if any, appropriate support.Answers are likely to be generalised and assertive. There will be little, if any, awareness of differing historical interpretations. The response will be limited in development and skills of written communication will be weak. 1-6 L2: Answers will show some understanding of the focus of the question. They will either be almost entirely descriptive with few explicit links to the question or they may contain some explicit comment with relevant but limited support. They will display limited understanding of differing historical interpretations. Answers will be coherent but weakly expressed and/or poorly structured. 7-11 L3:Answers will show a developed understanding of the demands of the question. They will provide some assessment, backed by relevant and appropriately selected evidence, but they will lack depth and/or balance. There will be some understanding of varying historical interpretations. Answers will, for the most part, be clearly expressed and show some organisation in the presentation of material. 12-16 L4: Answers will show explicit understanding of the demands of the question. They will develop a balanced argument backed by a good range of appropriately selected evidence and a good understanding of historical interpretations.Answers will, for the most part, show organisation and good skills of written communication. 17-21 Answers will be well-focused and closely argued. The arguments will be supported by precisely selected evidence leading to a relevant conclusion/judgement, incorporating well-developed understanding of historical interpretations and debate. Answers will, for the most part, be carefully organised and fluently written, using appropriate vocabulary. 22-24 L5: Indicative content The impact of the papacy during this period was, at best, variable.Paul III, despite his evident corruption and shortcomings, set up in 1536 the commission which produced the reform proposals contained in the Consilium†¦de Emendanda Ecclesia. Despite papal sponsorship, the Consilium achieved only a small proportion of its objectives, which might re inforce a critical stance concerning Paul III as a proponent of reform. On the other hand, he did set up the Council of Trent, though it achieved little during his pontificate. His successor, Julius III, had little interest in reform, though he did keep the Council in session. Paul IV, though genuinely 11History – AQA GCE Mark Scheme SPECIMEN (June 2010 onwards) interested in reform, almost destroyed the reforming impetus on account of his divisiveness, antagonising both ecclesiastical colleagues such as Cardinal Morone and key Catholic monarchs such as Charles V, Philip II and Ferdinand. Pius IV managed to assuage Paul IV’s bitter legacy and, most importantly, set the Council of Trent back in motion and drove it to a successful conclusion. Other factors assisted the process of reform: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ the effects of the New Orders the early work of the Jesuits the eventual assertiveness of the Council of Trent reforming bishops. 12

Undoubtedly considerable changes in policing

The area of policing in developed countries has seen a substantive growth in interest among stakeholders forcing curious minds to flounder through WebPages and archives in search for vital information about the systems of policing and new trends.Undoubtedly, considerable changes in policing have occurred recently for reasons such as improved technology, change in culture and expectations of the citizens, increased knowledge, among others. Notably, different countries have different policing system depending on the objectives of the country and its historical background. (Manning 2005)Brief historyPolicing in the UK has been in existence for centuries i.e. since the Saxon times. However, modern policing systems can be dated back to the beginnings of the 19th century, where law enforcers were appointed in localized areas. Originally, the guards policed towns in order to ensure that curfews were adhered to and to contain riots.For example the Edinburgh town guard in 1682, Marine police, Glasgow police which were all formed in the late 18th century. In fact the first police in UK was the city of Glasgow police formed under the Glasgow police Act in the 1800. The police was a publicly funded program from local tax payers’ money and its duty was to prevent crime.The success of this force in that localized area was followed by its subsequent adoption in other areas. Additionally, committees were appointed to investigate of the policing in these areas from 1812-1822 and their findings and recommendations paved way for the incorporation of the metropolitan police Act 1829 under the instruction of Robert Peel, the then Home secretary.Following the passing of this Act the Metropolitan police was founded. Hirschel, David J. and William Wakefield. 1995The policing structure here was highly bureaucratic rigorous and hierarchal.   Their duty still remained to prevent crime and trail law breakers, in an unrestricted approach. The police of those days did not carry any armament due to the previous fears ingrained in citizens by the red dressed armies who used firearms and brutality to enforce laws.Therefore, their weaponry was limited to batons. Their uniform was navy blue in color, a sharp distinction from that of the army, although there were also plain-clothed police detectives but few in number. These differences were in part to create a clear distinction of police from civilians/army and also to eschew the potential of generating fear from civilians. Of course after the establishment of Metropolitan police in Britain, other states followed suit.In 1857, the general police Act in Scotland mandated the formation of country police force in every country, in 1856, England and Wale passed the country and Borough Act which required that police forces be created throughout England and Wales Ireland followed in1877 by forming the Royal Irish constabulary. (www.britannica.com)Soon all the states in the United Kingdom had enforced law enforcement unit (police forces) which since then have undergone reforms to improver efficacy and to streamline the mandates and responsibility of the police force.The US police system borrowed from that of its colonizers the Europeans thus they have an array of similarity. The first police force in the US was found in Boston and in New York as established in 1838 and 1844 respectively. However the first professionalized police force started in California, under August Vollmer and Wilson O.E then police chief.

An Exit Strategy From Poverty: Sustainable Comprehensive Humanitarian Assistance and Planning in the developing and under-developed world

Humanitarian aid to the developing and under-developed world has been a hotly debated issue around the globe for decades, with the focus being on how these poor nations can be given aid and if the aid is only creating more barriers than it is breaking them down. The prevalent belief now is that previous models of humanitarian aid have been band-aid fixes for an enduring, wide-scale problem. There appears to be a sea change occurring with humanitarian aid, however, spurred by economic and social reforms to previous aid models. This change, examined at the most simple level is influenced by the proverb â€Å"give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish, and you feed him for a lifetime. † An organization at the head of the tide of this sea change is Sustainable Comprehensive Humanitarian Assistance and Planning (SCHAP). SCHAP represents a movement away from aid from nation states and NGOs to more independent work by non-profit organizations – with a different economic sense than before. This new sense focuses aid not on the previous ‘head-above-water’ emergency temporary fixes, but rather on the development of the poor nations and their people, to get them out of the water altogether. It is the sustainable and comprehensive on which SCHAP endeavors itself, seeing it not just as part of the name of their organization, but as the name of a â€Å"new humanitarian ideology† (SCHAP 1) where assistance and planning are critical to the creation of a self empowering infrastructure based on the thinking and development of the suffering regions and communities (SCHAP 1). It is this focus on sustainability and providing aid in a comprehensive manner that SCHAP shares with the organizations it works with and takes inspiration from, like the revolutionary Grameen Bank. What SCHAP brings to poor nations is a unique aid perspective from a business-sense, where entrepreneurship and lending reforms are paramount. SCHAP’s vision is that this sea change will see developing and under-developed nations become truly profitable in not only an economic sense, but also socially, culturally and politically. SCHAP, in other words, does not wish to provide the fish, but rather to help create a nation of fishermen. 2. SCHAP’s HUMANITARIAN AID PLATFORM SCHAP is a non-profit organization working in poor nations, and their mission is two-pronged: to bring sustainable solutions to humans living with extreme disadvantages in an effort to empower them with tools, resources, information and vision requisite for development and an increased quality of life, while also teaching the correct principles of sustainable and comprehensive humanitarian work to aspiring philanthropists. SCHAP 1) SCHAP brings an approach that focuses on internal development rather than external fixes or influences. With access to developmental skills and tools and proper education, SCHAP states that change will come from the spread of principles, technology and information from within communities (1). SCHAP’s non-profit status means that it can devote the entirety of its resources and donations to the communit ies of poor nations. Founder and President Cory Glazier emphasizes that every dollar that goes to SCHAP goes into the cost of their projects, and that with a fully volunteer staff, they can grow unabated by the freedom from the need for funds (KPBS 1). An aspect of SCHAP that has garnered it not only success in its application in villages like Matoso, Kenya, but also global attention, is from its focus on planning that examines the issues at the heart of the communities and builds aid from those issues in a way that respects the local cultural and social integrity. Glazier maintains that by looking at the roots of an issue rather than just the implications of those issues (which includes speaking with people in the villages), a better understanding is gained as to how these people’s circumstances got to be the way they are and what must be done (SCHAP 1) to promote development to cross the poverty line. By better understanding the circumstances that led to and that propagate the conditions the people of poor nations face, SCHAP is uniquely equipped with the knowledge to create a plan that implements a comprehensive multi-dimensional platform to create permanent solutions. Paul Polak sees this sort of planning as being â€Å"routine for large businesses or for any entrepreneur seeking to start-up venture capital, but it is rare for development organizations† (18). Polak’s wealth of experience with humanitarian aid has given him an exclusive perspective on what is needed in order to end poverty in the poor nations, and he sees learning from a real-life context from those who are suffering and not ignoring the obvious as leading to creation of world-changing ideas (18). SCHAP’s focus on the internal development rather than the external addresses what Jeffrey Sachs sees as the influence of the developed world and how the poor nations must break the barriers that have beset them as well as the barriers that foreign aid has unwittingly erected. Sach’s identification that â€Å"a country’s fate is crucially determined by its specific linkages to the rest of the world† (128) is one that SCHAP recognizes and looks to fix with promoting the internal development of communities to unwrap themselves from the more burdensome linkages, such as crippling terms of debt or the inability to gain credit. Sach carries forward on his premise of the effect of specific linkages with the rest of the world, suggesting two remedies that SCHAP champions, which are the concept of economic transformation of a broad-based sense and the possibilities of a practical nature that arise from conceptual thinking on a large-scale (128). The true promising potential of SCHAP is seen in how its fundamentals mirror what a United States Institute of Peace symposium in October 1995 outlined as to what was needed to create a more positive impact by NGOs on foreign aid, which were improved planning, more accurate assessment of needs, providing aid with the longest term benefit to specifically targeted groups and empowering local institutions (Smock 1). With SCHAP focusing on sustainable and comprehensive planning, it is operating within a new framework that is given a freedom as a result from working independently of governments and International bodies that have been heavily involved in foreign aid that has largely been ineffectual. Operating in this manner, SCHAP is not guilty of what David Smock admonishes NGOs for, which is functioning merely as agents for the implementation of foreign aid from governments and the United Nations (2). The most unique aspect of SCHAP is its local approach regarding aid. By focusing on a community, not only is the task less daunting for a smaller organization such as SCHAP, but it also plays to the organization’s strength of knowing the root of local issues. This knowledge entails a respect for the social and cultural identity of these communities and the importance that the sphere of a community is to the larger cultural and social national identity. It is tribalism mixed with 21st century economics, and it is this ‘best of both worlds’ framework which SCHAP is hoping to use to bring the people of poor nations out of poverty – for good. To evaluate the work that SCHAP is doing, its potential for long term developmental benefits and the support it has from other institutions that assist it or provide a parallel framework, three key areas that SCHAP is focused on should be examined. Firstly is SCHAP’s focus on providing the people of poor nations with an exit strategy from poverty by a business-oriented tilt towards entrepreneurship and the formation of a solid financial foundation from micro-credit. Another key area of concern for SCHAP is attention towards education, which will not only raise the quality of life for the people in the communities, but a focus on the development of children will lead to long-lasting benefits that will carry on for generations. Lastly, SCHAP is obviously promoting improvements in the health of the people of poor nations with such necessities as clean water and access to and knowledge of better nutrition. These three key areas of concern are part of the building blocks of the comprehensive vision that SCHAP holds of bringing an end to poverty for the people of poor nations – on their terms. . Providing an Exit Strategy from Poverty Foreign aid has largely been stopgap measures in emergency situations, with money and manpower being poured into poor areas to provide food and resources without addressing the causes of the problems that plague poor nations. This aid has managed to staunch some of the bleeding that poverty steadily provides, but it is only by giving the poor nations an independence from foreign aid and providing the tools and knowledge needed to ascend beyond poverty that these nations and, more importantly, their people will prosper. What SCHAP endeavors to provide the people of communities like Matoso, Kenya is an exit strategy from poverty that focuses on providing the means for not only self-sustainment but also profit. It is from Glazier that SCHAP’s unique foundation is formed, as he has a background business, which he uses to his advantage and to the advantage of his organization and the people they help escape poverty. To use Matoso as a case study, Glazier and SCHAP put together what he calls a â€Å"business plan for the village† (KPBS 1), which focuses on what is needed to increase the quality of life for the village as a whole and for families and individuals that live within it by promoting their own development. Glazier sees the inherent barriers that a cashless community faces in trying to interact with a cash community (1), such as a financial institution or a financially supportive NGO or nation state. SCHAP’s business plan is to break those barriers. SCHAP’s exit strategy from poverty for the people of poor nations involves teaching the principles of entrepreneurship, how to optimize businesses and the benefits of microcredit (SCHAP 1). The passing of this knowledge is intended to create sustainable rural development promoted by the entrepreneurship of local members of the community, which would create a market environment within the community (SCHAP 1). SCHAP recognizes that the potential of local entrepreneurs by to be business leaders and wishes to empower them with training and assistance to reach this potential. Implementation of this strategy includes business development workshops in the communities, teaching those in the communities to develop business plans and how to qualify for microcredit and to train and hire members of the community to serve as business development leaders to carry on the initiatives set out by SCHAP (SHAP 1). Muhammad Yunus, Nobel Prize winner for creating the ‘grandfather’ institution of micro-credit, the Grameen Bank, acknowledges the capabilities of the people of poor nations to be successful entrepreneurs and that the support of organizations with the objectives of SCHAP can create stepping stones out of poverty. Yunus sees entrepreneurship as a universal ability that allows people to choose to work for themselves rather than waiting for jobs to be created for them (54). Yunus likens the business development by local entrepreneurs to the growth of healthy bonsai trees, as the seed of a tall tree planted in a shallow pot will grow to resemble a tall tree but will be stunted; the seed is fine, but the soil needs to be adequate to promote proper growth (54). The ‘seed’ that foreign aid has provided in the past was well intended but the framework was inadequate to create real change to the situation of poverty. The business-driven initiatives of SCHAP look to create deep, fertile soil to promote the ascension beyond poverty. Another aspect of SCHAP’s exit strategy from poverty involves the access to microcredit in order to bring the impoverished into the financial sphere. Not only will microcredit allow for entrepreneurial growth, but it will also promote financial stability for future inevitabilities of families well beyond business. By providing microcredit and supportive training to qualified members of the communities, sustainable financial situations can be created and maintained. SCHAP looks to achieve this not only with access to microcredit, but by also working with the local entrepreneurs with developing a business plan and to achieve the qualifications for credit (SCHAP 1). This is a long-term initiative that looks to empowering the people of poor nations and breaking down the barriers that traditional financial institutions have erected by marginalizing – and even entirely dismissing – the people of poor nations. Breaking these barriers is what motivated Yunus to create the Grameen Bank to serve as a financial institution to the poor. Yunus’ evaluation of the treatment of the people of poor nations led him to the realization that banks considered the poor as unworthy of credit and as a result, the poor were prevented from entering into – and profiting from – the financial system, and from this broken system Yunus sought to create a financial institution that would worthy of the people (49). In the traditional financial system, the people of the poor nations are non-entities. Traditional financial institutions are concerned with making money, and providing funds to risky ventures is not in those banks best interests. Without credit, the poor cannot create a foundation to develop a long-term self-sustaining life and save money. The conditions that have created and perpetuated poverty in developing and under-developed nations are not the only obstacle that the poor must overcome in order to escape poverty. The barriers created by the traditional financial institutions hold back the development that the poor are capable of achieving given they are allowed access to what the rest of the world has had for decades. Turning up a nose to the people of poor nations’ need for credit is a hypocritical stance that ignores the realities of the markets in the Western World. Credit is arguably how the middle class in the West survives, and when that bubble bursts, the effects show how pervasive credit is in the economy of these countries. Look no further than the subprime mortgage crisis in the United States and the resulting economic instability for an example of the vast need for credit inherent in the developed world. To deny the developing and under-developed world credit is to deny their potential and their rights. Yunus created the Grameen Bank to allow access to credit for the poor to generate self-employment and income for them (Yunus 54). The Grameen Bank operates under Yunus’ principles of microcredit, which does enforce on the poor the rules and laws of traditional banks, but rather recognizes them upon their own worth (49). Microcredit provides microloans – small loans with small interest rates – to those without collateral or previous credit. Microcredit, and the other facets of microfinance promote entrepreneurship and the ability to develop the stability needed for long-term sustainability above the poverty line. The Grameen Bank’s use of microcredit and its unique lending terms allow for the challenging of what Yunus calls the â€Å"financial apartheid† (51), as traditional lending terms, especially interest rates, are entirely unreasonable for the people of poor nations. While the average person in the Western World is around 20 to 25 per cent, poor people, who are ‘graciously allowed’ to be burdened by traditional banks with payday loans, are facing annual interest rates around 250 per cent (51). Yunus faced widespread criticism from those appalled at his disregard for the low-risk activity of traditional financial institutions and willingness to apparently throw money away without any chance of seeing any sort of return. Yunus was literally banking on the potential he saw in the people of poor nations, and his work not only yielded financial returns, but also allowed for the economic development of poor communities. The success of the Grameen Bank and its microcredit platform is seen in the over 2500 branches that currently provide loans to over seven million poor, totaling six Billion Dollars (51) since the Banks’ inception in 1983. The repayment rate on those loans stands at 98. 6 per cent – a blow to critics of microcredit and the Grameen Bank – and most importantly, 64 per cent of borrowers that have been involved with the Bank for five or more years have risen above the poverty line (52). SCHAP utilizes microcredit to promote development in communities because it allows for flexibility and growth that is within the reach of poor entrepreneurs. A study by Daryl Collins et al. howed that when given access to loans, the poor members of communities acted in a responsible manner that promoted sustainability, with savings being contributed to the bank weekly, and withdrawals being made only between two or three times in a financial quarter (161). The study also found that ease of use brought about increased development, as the introduction of the passbook savings account saw a dramatic rise in savings made by the poor members of the communities (162). The efficacy of the Grameen Bank and microcredit, then, can be seen in the quantitative evidence, but the true human impact can be seen on the quality of life of those borrowers. In these communities, the priority of families if of course the children, to not only provide them with the essentials for a healthy, productive life, but also to be given the tools and skills to continue the entrepreneurial activities. The Grameen Pension Savings (GPS) is a facet of the microcredit initiatives that greatly benefit children with the long-term stability of saving profits. The GPS offers a low interest rate to borrowers in exchange for the promise of a regular savings of at least one dollar per month for the term of the loan, which is either five or 10 years. The plan is not restricted to retirement resources, as it promotes the saving of funds for the social, cultural and familial inevitabilities, such as children’s schooling and weddings (168). While the structure of the GPS promotes savings discipline, it also is freeing in terms of its end-of-term options, as at the end of a GPS term, savings can be transferred into a deposit account at the bank and a new GPS can be started (168). Programs such as the GPS promote the sort of sustainable development that SCHAP is initiating in these communities, which will allow for the people to pick themselves up out of the hole of poverty and propagate the economic, social and cultural integrity of the community, the region and the nation at large. The Asia-Pacific Review highlighted the advantages of microcredit to organizations such as SCHAP and their initiatives: micro-credit is a dream come true for donors and non-governmental organizations†¦loans are invested in pre-existing survival skills, enabling the poorest to be magically transformed into entrepreneurs. That way, micro-credit’s supporters claim, lending to the poor shows that capitalism can benefit all, not just the rich. (xii) It is not magic that will transform the people of these communities into entrepreneurs, but the hard work of organizations like SCHAP and, more importantly, the hard work and dedication of the local members of the communities. One aspect of entrepreneurialism that SCHAP is channeling that hard work and resources into is the ensuring of ongoing regional economic development through a focus on agriculture (SCHAP 1). Polak has studied such agricultural reform with great attention, and has found that foreign aid to poor communities has provided only enough knowledge of farming to barely keep their heads above water. His experience in these communities found that the focus of agriculture was on the products and means of producing such that provided only enough to eat, but not near enough to reach a surplus on which money could be made on the market. Polak found that the difficulties of such practices come from two sources: an ingrained traditional in the culture of these communities and the propagation of such practices by government agricultural aid agents that applied Western knowledge of crop production for sustenance (84). Polak saw the potential for the economic benefits and an increase in quality of life in agricultural reforms, specifically in small-acreage farms. This potential arose from the ideals of the Green Revolution, for which its creator Norman Borlaug received a Nobel Prize. The Green Revolution refers to the sustainable change in food production, with a focus on small-acreage farmers, which would create an increase in food supply, new jobs and reasonable income from the selling of surplus food products (85). What agricultural reforms like the Green Revolution provide for small-acreage subsistence farmers is the opportunity to not to just live hand-to-mouth and remain reliant upon foreign aid donations, but to operate in a profitable manner that will allow them to be active members of the marketplace and to have the ability to purchase the food and resources they need. This is the sustainability that SCHAP endeavors to help provide, hence their attention to agriculture as a means for entrepreneurial success. The means for this success suggested by Polak concerning agricultural reform are teaching small-acreage farmers green revolution strategies, including using high yield varieties of crops already being produced, the use of fertilizers and proper irrigation to increase the yield of their food crops to enter the marketplace (84). SCHAP has used a business plan approach to agriculture to create cash flow in the village of Matoso. They took a plot of land and created – with the help of those in the community – a large garden. This garden served to not only get the economic ball rolling in the community to combat poverty, but also served as an example for the local members of the community as to how to develop a marketplace to benefit them by creating capital. In order to gain access to such healthcare products such as malaria medication or contraceptives, members of the communities could work in the garden and farm area in exchange for the medications, which SCHAP would provide. They did this, not to undermine the economy of the community, but to promote the knowledge and skills of producing time, effort and product into money (KPBS 1). By promoting entrepreneurship in this manner, SCHAP created a cycle of cash flow by purchasing medications and providing those medications to the community and then selling back the produce from the garden and farm area, (KPBS 1) in hopes of overcoming the stagnation of poverty with a new engine of commerce. This promotion of commerce with agriculture is not only an access point for local members of the community to qualify for microcredit, but also the creation of a sustainable way of life that promotes the growth beyond poverty. Lisa Avery points out that microcredit has gained recognition on the world stage as an effective mechanism for the empowerment of the people of poor nations in an economic and social sense (224), but her work also shows the importance of SCHAP’s comprehensive focus on battling poverty. The need for effective aid is to be multi-dimensional, and Avery recognizes this factor in the relationship between entrepreneurial pursuits and the support of microcredit and education and health, as she discovered that the children of borrowers from microcredit institutions like the Grameen Bank had much higher rates of enrollment in schools and that their medical needs were more likely to be met (209). 4. SCHAP’s Focus on Education. SCHAP’s comprehensive focus is supported by the Asia & Pacific Review, whose study findings led them to suggest that unless microcredit is couple with sufficient support in other areas, the poor borrowers, especially women, will find their capacity to generate income in decline (xii). A focus of SCHAP in addition to entrepreneurship is education, which speaks as much to sustainable development within these communities just as much as economic activity. SCHAP operates with heavy attention on primary education by introducing school buildings and the tools and skills to provide the educational framework within them. Yunus exemplifies the authoritative voice of support for SCHAP’s initiatives, arguing that â€Å"the first and foremost task of development is to turn on the engine of creativity inside each person† (56). Yunus also looks to the next generation of the members of these communities to be the focus of reducing or eliminating poverty, and maintains that any program directed towards children should be considered a prime development program, just as important, if not more so, than the development of infrastructure (55). In terms of the comprehensive approach to battling poverty, Yunus agrees this approach must be taken, as he argues that economic development must include the exploration of creative potential of the individual which, when enabled, will prove more important than any quantitative economic factor (56). This sense of education leading to economic growth not only shows the efficacy of the comprehensive approach of organizations like SCHAP, but also highlights the focus on the long-term sustainability of these communities and their people. By focusing attention and resources on children at a prime stage of development, the impressions made will last beyond their generation, as they will be passed on for many more to come. SCHAP’s primary education goals are to create schools and to create activities that foster learning and creative exploration for the children, as many of these communities have no formal primary educational programs and the education institutions that do exist are highly ineffective, which has resulted in high illiteracy rates and basic learning skills, especially in children under nine years of age (SCHAP 1). Construction of school buildings are repairs to existing structures is an example of a hands-on fix, while SCHAP looks to empower the community to provide education by providing training and jobs for local teachers as well as needed resources (1). Sustainability of these programs is addressed with the covering of overhead with small school fees, which are made possible by the economic reforms within these communities with entrepreneurship and access to marketplace due to agricultural reforms. The multitude of benefits from this focus on primary education is due in no small part to the role that poor education plays in the derailment of any long-term attempts at ending poverty in these communities. Lisa Avery found that children that do not receive schooling during their critical formative years will only serve to continue the cycle of the illiterate and uneducated in the communities, and that low levels of education contribute to the continuation of poverty, as a result of higher birth rates and those children competing in the families for resources already stretched too thin and they are left out of the workplace (212) due to lack of skills. The Academy for Education Development looks to primary education programs such as those of SCHAP as promoting the learning of skills and the articulation of ideas that promote the acquisition of knowledge and the means for development, but also in the acquisition of the processes and habits of reasoning that promote lifelong learning and the development of the community as a result of learning. An important aspect of SCHAP’s focus on education within the context of a community is that with local education there is also an instilling of cultural value systems. These value systems are just as important as the knowledge of the world around the students, as an understanding of where they come from and what it means to belong to that community, regional and national culture promotes the continuation of those cultural traditions and values to future generations. This is an empowering facet of the nature of these communities, not only to preserve the culture, but to also serve as a sense of independence from nations and cultures that they previously relied so heavily upon. In this way, every member of the community can be a teacher, and there is much to be learnt from them by the children. SCHAP recognizes this and involves parents and other elder members of communities within the educational programs to promote cultural learning. This is essential for not only the children, but also for the other members of the community to reinforce the cultural value and belief systems. The Academy for Education Development regards this activity as highly effective in doing so, recommending that for the success of such primary educational programs, parental involvement should be encouraged, not just as guests or family members but as contributing members of the community (23). Having parents and members of the community involved in primary school programs as SCHAP does promotes linkage between school and the community and home, where what is learned from each sphere can be transferred and shared between members. While the positive aspects of learning within a community are emphasized by SCHAP, so to are initiatives to overcome the aspects of the community that may impede learning. One such initiative is the creation of a â€Å"micro library† consisting of a collection of approximately 1,000 books on a wide variety of topics, along with providing assistance for studying the materials (SCHAP 1). What SCHAP is trying to do with these libraries is not just to provide another centre for learning, but also to combat the â€Å"closed system of information† (1) that communities become. Making new knowledge, skills and resources available to the community promotes an increase in development (1) in the economic, social, cultural and political spheres of the local region. Education works in tandem with business development to create a foundation from which to rise above poverty, but another issue that must be addressed before work can be done or learning is to be made, and that is the health of those in the communities. . SCHAP’s Focus on Health Health is obviously an important issue in the lives of people in poor nations and foreign aid’s attempt at solving. Unfortunately a large amount of funds and manpower has been put into emergency situations regarding health, but very little has been done to address the roots of health issues that are simplistic and relativ ely cheap in comparison to wide-spread relief efforts of the past. A health focus that comes from SCHAP’s knowledge of the fundamental roots of issues in these communities involves the access to clean water. The conditions of water in developing and under-developed nations is dangerously poor due to contamination from agricultural run-off, ineffective or non-existent waste management and illness-causing pathogens. By creating a clean water system in these communities, SCHAP is producing a permanent fix to the root health issue by providing a â€Å"sustainable, maintainable, expandable and replicable† (1) resource. One initiative to achieve this system is with the building and installation of a water filtration system that is simplistic and requires low maintenance, so that the members of the community can maintain existing systems and build and install more elsewhere. An IDRC study by Blanca Jimenez et al. recommends such simple filtration systems for communities such as these, with filtration removing dangerous particulate matter and illness-causing pathogens from the water (3). The IDRC also sees the benefit of access and propagation of these basic systems, as they are infinitely more cost effective than wider-spread regional programs that require significant funds and resources, such as the installation of water treatment plants (3). Another health focus of SCHAP that not only addresses a fundamental issue of poor health of the impoverished but also illuminates how health is linked with education and work in creating an escape from poverty is nutrition. The plan for improved nutrition involves the education of the community, particularly children, as to what is necessary in terms of food to keep them healthy, but also an education as to what agricultural output is most nutritional (SCHAP 1). While medications can be costly and difficult to obtain because of limited supply, addressing a health concern such as nutrition gets to the origins of issues before they can multiply or become fatal. Many people in poor nations die from illnesses that would be easily preventable with basic education and forethought into such things as nutrition. Engle et al. has examined the linkage between nutrition and child development, finding that illnesses that come from poor nutrition, such as anemia, impede such development (230). The prevention of childhood development that malnutrition causes is caused by a disruption of neural circuitry that can lead to permanent difficulties with cognitive skills (230). Early intervention in the form of nutritional education and agricultural reform is shown to combat this development impediment. To use anemia as an example, it occurs because of an iron deficiency. SCHAP initiatives would include the promoting of the growth of iron rich plants, which the IDRC has found to have positive effects on the childhood development of motor-skills, emotional maturity and language and other social skills (Jimenez 2). The initiatives of SCHAP in this context once again present a comprehensive approach to combating poverty, by promoting a healthy lifestyle and the means to achieve it, which can be passed down for generations to come. . Conclusion While only touching on a few of SCHAP’s initiatives for communities in poor nations, what is made clear is that a reformed, comprehensive approach that focuses on sustainable long-term results has the great potential for creating an exit strategy from poverty for these nations and to untie these nations from the cumbersome umbilical cord of foreign aid. What SCHAP is doing by setting up programs and initiatives in these communities is not a hand out, but a helping hand. By giving the tools and the means to create their own resources to these communities, SCHAP is contributing to the fight against poverty in ways that are far-reaching and long lasting. The emphasis made by Cory Glazier on listening to the members of these communities shows a simplistic approach to revolutionary, life-changing ideas. It implies the communication with and involvement of the people of these communities who not only have a right to have say in foreign aid that is given to them, but who also have a responsibility to create the changes that will end poverty in their nations. While SCHAP has shown great potential and has made great improvements in villages such as Matoso, the reality is that there must be hundreds more organizations like SCHAP to join the battle. It is not a battle that these organizations, such as SCHAP or their supporting institutions such as the Grameen Bank, can win, but it is in arming the people of these poor nations that the battle can indeed be won.